Dutton,
D.G. (2001) The
neurobiology of abandonment homicide. Aggression and
Violent Behavior, 7, 1- 15.
Donald G. Dutton
Requests
for reprints to: dutton@interchange.ubc.ca or Department of Psychology,
Key
words: homicide, trauma, attachment, neuropsychology,
neurobiology
Neurobiology
of Abandonment Homicide
Abstract
A review is made of the typical modus operandi and psychological profile
of uxoricide (wife murder) perpetrators. Typically
most had traumatic childhoods and have current personality disorders (typically
Dependent, Passive-Aggressive or Borderline P.D.). The uxoricide
occurred during attempted abandonment of the relationship by the female was
characterized by extreme violence and elements of disorganized behavior by the
perpetrator. A review is also made of the neuroanatomy
and neurobiology of aggression. It is found that the orbitof
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
This paper examines psychobiological
moderators of a special category of homicides; those precipitated by
abandonment by an intimate other or its’ anticipation. I am not referring to
intimate homicides that are instrumental; planned for financial gain. I am
describing reactive spousal homicides resulting either from a perception that a
spouse is leaving or has left or those longer term “abandonments”
predicated on emotional distancing and an ensuing “catathymic
crisis” (Wertham 1937). Meloy (1992), Wilson &
Daly 1993, Dutton & Kerry (1999) and others have written about this
category from a number of perspectives. Although Wilson & Daly (1993) er
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
criminal histories. Dutton & Kerry (1999) found that Psychopaths were more likely to kill for
instrumental reasons. The men who kill in response to abandonment have insecure attachments that serve ego integrating functions for them.
Meloy (1992) describes a catathymic
homicide as delineated by
“intense autonomic arousal, (and) overwhelming anger during the violence (p.
47)”. Wertham
(1937) had described a
“catathymic crisis”: a seemingly unsolvable state of
ch
Dutton (1998) developed and tested a theory, combining many of these elements in a non-lethal group of spouse assaulters. In a sample of 200 men, he related psychological assessments of the perpetrators to spouses’ reports of physical, sexual and emotional abuse. He also examined the developmental history of the perpetrators. These men also experienced abandonment rage and acted in a controlling way to avoid it, frequently questioning their spouses on their whereabouts, etc. The non-lethal abandonment rage stemmed from a triad of early developmental factors:
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
abuse, being shamed and being insecurely attached. Development of attachment insecurity is
especially acute during the “rapprochment
subphase” of early development (1.5- 2). These, he
argues constituted a form of trauma in an immature male with resulting
difficulties in ego development and tendencies to use control and violence as
guards against abandonment by intimates (Dutton 1995, 1999). The strength of
the anxiety on which this rage was based could be inferred from paranoid
reactions to the intimates use of space and time and from affective reactions
to videotapes depicting intimate abandonment (Dutton & Browning 1988).
Abusive men self reported significantly more arousal, anger and anxiety to a
video depicting a woman’s independence (perceived as abandonment) than did
other groups of men. They did not differ on responses to “neutral” conflict
videos. Dutton (1994) demonstrated PTSD profiles in these men similar to those
obtained from independently assessed war veterans. Both groups demonstrated
“82C” elevations on the MCMI-11 found by other researchers (
The key ingredients of abandonment homicides then are as follows: first,
a male perpetrator with ego deficits related to early family-generated trauma
and insecure attachment. Second, a perception of being abandoned by an intimate
other, and a disproportionate arousal-rage reaction generated toward the woman
(but which may deflect to children or others present and to the perpetrator
himself), sometimes described as “overkill”. Finally, a
“disorganized” or poorly implemented attempt to hide the body and conceal
evidence (bloodstains) on the self. Men who flee the scene frequently
did so with visible bloodstains and may be apprehended when noticed in public ( see State of
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
neurobiology of
aggression. Since I have argued that such homicidal rage has a trauma basis,
and have developed that argument with regard to non-lethal intimate violence
(Dutton 1998, 1999), I attempt here to review the growing literature on the neuropsychology of aggression; both its’ neuroanatomical and functional aspects. I also review the
literature on neural development, especially as it is affected by trauma and
trauma caused by separation. Needless to say, any attempt to explain a macrobehavioral pattern will, of necessity, be speculative. Nevertheless, there are components of that
pattern upon which recent neurobiological studies can shed some light.
Neurobiology of aggression
Kardiner (1941) first recognized that
“explosive reactions” were part of the “traumatic neuroses” and stressed that
explosive aggressive reactions were foreign to his patient’s pre-trauma
personalities. He stated “The aggressiveness of the traumatic neurotic is not deliberate nor premeditated. His aggression is always impulsive; nor is it capable of being long
sustained. Entirely episodic, it often alternates with moods of extreme
tenderness.” (Kardiner, 1941, p. 97
cited in van der Kolk
1996).
Davidson, Putnam & Larson
(2000) review the activity of brain circuitry regulating emotion:the orbital f
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
a cerebral structure
that is located in the anterior undersurface and interior of the cortex and is
especially developed in the right hemisphere. Using functional MRI scans,
Davidson et al. found that impulsive-aggressive individuals do not show normal
glucose metabolic functioning in the PFC area. Furthermore, lesions in the PFC
or OFC areas produce syndromes characterized by impulsivity and aggression.
Also, impulsive-aggressives (Temporal Lobe Epilepsy:TLE) diagnosed with intermittent explosive
disorder have left PFC areas that are 17% smaller than TLE’s
without a history of aggression. The authors conclude that these neuroanatomical areas and the interconnections amongst them
are central in the generation of impulsive aggression. Further they argue that
the structure and function of this circuitry is affected by both genetic and
early envi
Studies on the development of these neuroanatomical areas has been extensively reviewed by Schore (1994) who concludes that “the infant’s affective
interactions with the early human social envi
Schore (1994) describes the development of impulse control
or “automodulation of rage” as occurring because of
“structural transformation (rewiring) of the (OFC), a system governing internal
inhibition ..this anatomical locus with its far
reaching cortical and subcortical connections
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
is equivalent
to the f
Perry (1995) argues that “the structural
organization and the functional capabilities of the mature brain develop
throughout life, with the vast majority of the critical structural organization
taking place in childhood…due to the sequential development of the brain,
disruptions of normal developmental processes early in life (e.g. during the perinatal period) which alter the brainstem or midbrain
will necessarily alter the development of limbic and cortical areas because the
critical signals these areas depend on for normal organization originate in
these lower brain areas” (p 5). In a study of hyperaroused,
reactive boys who had been exposed to prolonged domestic violence, Perry found
that a subset of the boys developed predatory behavior. The boys described a
soothing, calming effect when they began “stalking” a victim. Perry views aggressive acting out as a means of attempting to
control inner aversive arousal and a persistent fear response developed through
exposure to domestic violence.
Functional imaging studies of violent
psychiatric patients have demonstrated decreased brain metabolism in pref
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
violent controls. Affective murderers relative to controls
had lower left and right pref
Hence, the relative balance of activity between the two areas was important and consistent with Schore’s developmental emphasis on the OFC area as a braking mechanism. Schore
(1994:344)
attributes the development of stress regulating strategies to practicing
“distress-relief sequences” which “ facilitate a
transition from distress to quiet alertness….. relief
is neurophysiologically expressed in the diminution of sympathetic and
activation of parasympathetic activity…distress-relief sequences, which are
composed of sequential periods of sympathetic hyperaroused distress (separation
protest, narcissistic rage) followed by parasympathetic relief thus reflects a
shift of limbic system predominance”. Pine (1990) concludes that as a result of
particular experiences with a reliable caregiver the infant develops an
expectation of relief which allows for delay in the face of need and acts to
regulate inner states….pref
Raine, Bushsbaum
& Lacasse (1997) found brain abnormalities in
murderers who had pleaded NGRI (Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity). Using PET
scans and a continuous performance challenge task, they found 41 murderers
(compared to matched controls) showed reduced glucose metabolism in the pref
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
lower than
right) in the amygdala, thalamus, and medial temporal
lobe. The authors speculated that a “network of abnormal cortical and subcortical brain processes may predipose to violence in murderers –pleading NGRI” (p.
495).
Neurobiological
Functioning
Coccaro (1996) and
Coccarro & Kavoukian
(1996) have examined the role of monoamine transmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine) in human aggression and
violence, using postmortem brain studies of individuals who had committed
suicide or had been killed in accidents. Suicide victims tended to have lowered
serotonin levels compared to accident victims. Furthermore, individuals who had
used a violent means of committing suicide had even lower levels of serotonin
(5-HT) in their cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Coccarro
& Kavoukian also reports studies linking low serotonin
levels with histories of aggressive behavior in naval recruits. As the authors
put it “this suggested that, in some populations at least, reduced CSF 5-HIAA
(a metabolite of serotonin) concentration predisposes humans to aggression
directed both at the self and the other” (p. 69). Studies of brain receptors
generally support the hypothesis that self-directed aggression is associated
with reduced serotonin activity. Typically suicide victims have reduced numbers
of receptor sites compared to accident victims. Comparisons of groups low or
normal in serotonin (5-HT) levels, revealed that 5-HT
function is specifically associated with physically assaultive
behaviors as measured by the Buss-Durkee assault
scale. Stanley et al (in press) assessed whether serotonin dysfunction was
related to aggression in the absence of a history of suicidal behavior. They
did a median split for aggression on 64 patients with no suicidal history. The
aggressive group had significantly lower levels of a serotonin metabolite drawn
from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF 5-HIAA) concentrations than did the
non-aggressive group. Aggressive individuals also scored higher on self-report
measures of hostility, impulsiveness and sensation seeking. Stoff
& Vitiello (1996) examined the role of serotonin
in adolescent
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
aggression. They
noted that animal behavior studies indicated that increasing or decreasing
serotonin (5-HT) activity produced concomitant decreases or increases in
aggression and that these results were consistent with the human data collected
by Coccaro & Kavoussi
(1996). Stoff and Vitiello
reviewed 25 studies and noted that aggressive tendencies and cerebrospinal serotonin concentrations
(obtained by lumbar puncture) are both highly stable over the life cycle.
Decreased levels of CSF concentrations of 5- HIAA were obtained in children and
adolescents with Conduct Disorder, and low 5-HT levels were generally related
to aggressiveness in adolescent populations.
Coccarro & Kavoussi (1996) also review animal studies for other
neurotransmitter systems such as norepinephrine (NE),
dopamine (DA) and endogenous opioids. These include
findings that increased NE function in the brain correlates positively with the
number of shock- induced aggressive episodes in rodents (Stolk,
Connor, Levine & Barchas 1974). Agents that
enhance NE function (i.e. tricyclic/MAOI
antidepressants) increase shock-induced fighting in rodents (Eichelman & Barchas 1975).
Stimulating post synaptic noradrenergic receptors in the hypothalamus
facilitates aggression in cats (Barrett, Edinger,
& Siegel 1990). In humans, clinical treatment with these agents is
associated with agitation and irritability, especially in subsets of patients
with borderline personality disorder (Cowdry &
Gardner 1988; Soloff, George, Nathan, Schultz & Perel 1986). Similarly, agents that diminish noradrenergic
function diminish aggression.
In humans, CSF and plasma measures of NE are positively related to a
scale measuring impulsivity (Roy, de Jong & Linnoila 1989). Coccaro & Kavoukian (1996) hypothesize that a neuropsychological
model of impulsive aggression in humans is modulated by serotonin system
function; the lower the functional status of the serotonin system, the more
likely the individual is to respond to “threat, frustration or aversive
circumstances with an aggressive outburst” (p. 80).
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
The role of other neurotransmitter
systems (NE, DA, opiates) lies in their role in perceiving threat or
frustration and in activating the cognitive and motor systems necessary for
aggression. This model suggests a person who is generally reactive to threat
with aggression. However, most spousal killers have no record of conviction for
aggression outside an intimate relationship (Dutton & Kerry 1999). Dutton
(1998) has suggested that insecure attachment is a trauma source for both
lethal and non-lethal spouse abusers. Insecure attachment would indicate an
inability to self-soothe and a consequent reliance on the intimate other to
provide soothing. In addition, in men who experienced traumatic childhoods,
attachment or threat of lost attachment may produce a variety of
psychobiological reactions similar to PTSD reactions (Dutton 1995, 1999). If
the threat of attachment loss is a distinct stressor in these men, then the
psychobiological reactions described by Cocarro &
Kavoussi (1996) would occur with greatest intensity
to perceived abandonment. Another line of research has shown that separation
per se produces alterations in neurotransmitter function.
Van der Kolk (1987a and b) showed how
primate research had demonstrated that social attachment was related to core
neurobiological functions in the primate brain. In mammalian species,
dependency on adult caregivers has become so st
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
repeated childhood
sexual abuse. Gurvitz, Shenton
& Pitman (1995) found that
with the most
intense combat experience and most severe PTSD had average hippocampal
shrinkage of 24%.
Van der Kolk
(1987) reviews the neurobiological consequences of disruptions of attachment
during critical periods of early development. Noting that separation from the
mother produces a protest/despair response in all primates, van der Kolk argues that “social
attachment is not only a psychological event; it is related to the development
of core neurobiological functions in the primate brain” (p. 39-40). Separation
distress is mediated by endogenous opioids, when
these are mimicked by a dose of morphine, the separation distress call does not
occur. Blocking opiate receptors greatly enhances the need for social
attachment. Social isolation diminishes brain opiate receptor density in mice.
The brain circuits that mediate separation distress are related to those that
mediate pain: stimulation of the parts of the thalamus, amygdala,
hypothalamus and neocortex all elicit distress
vocalizations in animals (p. 41). As van der Kolk puts it “there is now some evidence that pain
perception, separation distress, and affiliative
behavior are all mediated, at least in part, by the brain opiate system, and that
all three are related to discrete and interconnected neuroanatomical
systems” (.p 41). While these studies used non-human subjects, van der Kolk does note that “opiates
do have the capacity to relieve feelings of separation and alienation in human
adults. It is conceivable that unalleviated separation distress during infancy
makes a person more likely to seek the comfort of actions that stimulate the opioid system to
cope with adult
separation distress.
van der Kolk (1996) has described numerous studies done on
psychobiological reactions to separation trauma. van der Kolk recognizes attachment-
disruptions as traumatizing (see also van der Kolk 1987, Dutton 1998, inter alia).
Attachment disruption/ separation from the mother
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
generates hyperarousal and difficulty in modulating arousal (Pitman
1995). In primates, neurotransmitter changes include decreased hypothalamic
serotonin, (Coe et al. 1985), increased adrenal gland catechoamines
(Coe et al 1983), and changes in plasma cortisol (Coe
et al 1985), heart rate, body temperature, and sleep (Reite
et al 1981). Studies of
Interpersonal traumas experienced
at early ages also produce profound physiological effects. This occurs because
attachment is the most secure defense against trauma. When the attachment bond
itself is disrupted, the ability to modulate arousal is lost. van der Kolk
& Fisler (1994) found that traumatized adults who
had childhood histories of neglect had extremely poor prognoses. van der Kolk
(1987) describing the “separation cry and the trauma response’ lists a variety
of neurotransmitter changes related to attachment and separation. In addition
to those listed above for war veterans, separation from the attachment object
produces release of adrenocotropic hormones (ACTH)
and decreases in cortisol responsiveness (Mason
1967). Cortisol suppression has also been discovered
in rape victims with histories of prior assault (Resnick
et al. 1995). When cortisol is suppressed, ACTH
produces increased serotonin metabolism and hence, lower serotonin levels.
These, in turn have been linked to aggression as demonstrated above (van der Kolk 1996, Coccaro & Kavoukian
1996). In adults with histories of prior
trauma, the current trauma produces trauma-generated spiraling self- amplifying
arousal reactions. In this group, aggression is a frequent response to the
terror or uncontrollable arousal and anxiety.
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
.
The capacity to reduce arousal is the
major maternal quality that reinforces the early infants’ attachment to its’ mother (Mason 1968). Infants raised
in abusive households experience extreme arousal from the abuse and
simultaneously cannot be soothed by a mother who is unavailable by virtue of
being an abuse victim (Dutton 1998). These children are traumatized and
experience the psychobiologic reactions common to trauma victims. These include
unmodifiable arousal, and a complex long term
reactions comprised of polar opposites: hypermnesia
vs. amnesia, hyperactivity to trauma stimuli vs. psychic numbing, traumatic reexperiencing vs. repression.
Klein (1980) noted that both panic
attacks and depression are rooted in a neurological sensitivity to abandonment
precipitated by early life experiences. As van der Kolk (1987) points out, “it is likely that certain
childhood experiences make people vulnerable to disorders of the neurotransmitter
systems, which may be activated under stress, particularly after the loss of affiliative bonds.”(p. 46)
When separation from the mother occurs, a variety of neurotransmitter changes are generated in the infant. Drugs that increase noradrenergic activity in the brain can reverse the effects of separation and social isolation. (Suomi et. al., 1978). Hence, the secretion of noradrenalin is implicated in the separation response. Drugs that decrease the availability of the catecolamines (norepinephrine and dopamine) also aggravate the behavioral expression of separation stress in separated monkeys. Hence, NE is implicated in both separation stress and aggression (see Coccaro & Kavoussi 1996). Serotonin appears to increase affiliative behaviors and decrease fear and anxiety. Dominant male monkeys have higher levels of serotonin than subordinate males. Inhibition of serotonin increases fear and impulsive aggression. Hence, low serotonin levels are also implicated in aggression (Coccaro & Kavoussi 1996), increased fear/anxiety and decreased
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
tendencies
to affiliate. Thwarted attempts to affiliate, conversely may lower serotonin
levels in already ch
In abuse-traumatized men, hyper activity to
separation is central (Dutton et al, 1994), they experience “Fearful”
attachment styles, but use anger and control to avoid abandonment (e.g. threats
to the attachment-object, monitoring of her use of time and space, undermining
of her self confidence). As van der Kolk (1996) points out, ch
PTSD, Anger and Violence
Beckham & Moore & Reynolds (2000) reviewed several studies
indicating elevated anger in Vietnam Veterans with PTSD. Hiley-Young
et al (1995) found PTSD to be related to violence; 58% of a male sample of 177
reported previous violence towards their wife. Vietnam Vets with PTSD
reported 13-22 acts of interpersonal violence in the preceding year compared to
0-3 acts in non-PTSD vets. (Beckham et al. 1992). Beckham et al (1995) found that childhood
physical abuse, combat exposure, current alcohol use and PTSD severity all
contributed to interpersonal violence. According to Dutton’s (1998) model, the
alcohol use would itself be a
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
consequence of early
abuse/insecure attachment and the other predictors (with the obvious exception
of combat exposure) would apply as well to non-vet groups.
Dutton (1995) found that men in
treatment for wife assault had similar profiles on the MCMI-11 to two
independent samples of
The choice of an
intimate partner as the target of the abandonment rage underscores the origin
of that rage; abandonment by a parent. The abandonment terror is
transferred to the adult partner because the ego deficits generated by the
original trauma necessitate a current partner to maintain ego integrity (Dutton
1998). The prospect of loss generates a
subjective distress describes as extreme anxiety (Dutton & Kerry 1999).
Below we consider whether neural networks contain the malignant memories that
serve to target aggression toward the abandoning object.
Memory Retrieval and Abandonment
Rage
There are two issues concerning memory in intimate homicides; memory for
the act and memories of the original trauma that are triggered by abandonment. Swihart, Yuille & Porter (1999) have discussed the
“red-outs” that occur in spousal homicides. They suggest that extreme
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
rage states
(red-outs) create an inability to access state dependent memories. There is
some evidence that re-creating the homicidal setting under hypnosis produces
both the rage and the memory. This apparently occurred with Sirhan
Sirhan’s recall of his assassination of
The trauma origin of this abandonment rage
also accounts for the memory difficulties.
As van der Kolk
(1996) puts is “ the loss of recollections for
traumatic experiences is also well documented” (283). Siegfried et al (1990)
found that memory is impaired in animals when they can no longer actively
influence the outcome of a threatening situation. Panic interferes with
effective memory processing; both excessive endogenous opioids
and norepinephrine interfere with the storage of
explicit memory. The extreme emotion generated by abandonment may by retained separately from details of the actions involved
(see Christianson 1992). Christianson suggests that specific details of an
event and emotional details of an event may be retained separately, and that
emotional experiences may use different mechanisms (not necessarily conscious)
to process and store information. Thus, it may be possible to remember only the
specific details or the emotional details of an event. The individual may
remember that a st
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
Van der Kolk (1996) points out that severe stress generates
endogenous opioids which inhibit pain and reduce
panic. However, oversecretion of endonenous
opioids and NE both interfere with the storage of
experience in explicit memory. Siegfried et al. (1990) observed memory
impairment in animals who can no longer influence the
outcome of a threatening sitation. The animals
freeze, panic and secrete endogenous opioids, as if
preparing for pain or death. Van der Kolk suggests that
freezing/numbing responses may serve to remember situations of overwhelming
stress. He also suggests that dissociative reactions
in response to trauma may be analogous to the freezing complex in animals. Coccaro & Kavoussi (1996)
found increased NE activity to be associated with aggression. Increased NE
might also inhibit storage of memory for aggression, especially aggression
occurring as an impulsive acting out to an abandonment panic state.
Schwartz & Perry (1994) provide a
potential explanation for a second memory issue, why abandonment represents
such a traumatic stimulus for spousal homicide perpetrators. Abandonment in
early childhood produces a stress response that includes “ a
cascade of cellular and molecular processes that alter brain structure and
function to create an adaptive record of survival-related information ‘ (p.
312) Neurotransmitter receptor/effector activation
then alters intracellular chemical constituents. One important effect is the
sensitization of receptors to similar future neurotransmitter stimulation in
all synaptically connected neu
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
What Schwartz & Perry call malignant
memories are “patterned dysfunctional
contents of neural network activities integrating survival- related perception,
memory, arousal, cognition, affect, somatic and psychological state, and
behavior. Triggered by external sensory or internal cognitive, affective or
somatic cues, a malignant memory invades experience with high levels of noxious
arousal and can include cognitive distortions, memory changes, dissociative and somatic states, and behavioral and
affective overactivity….activation of a malignant
memory results in maladaptive states and behaviors.” (p. 313) According to
Schwartz & Perry, malignant memories, rooted in early development trauma,
are likely to manifest later as disorders of self, personality, or ego
functions, including cognitive development and regulation of object relations,
attention, affect and arousal. These malignant memories, stored in neural
networks functionally cut off from higher cortical function can generate high
arousal rage states and actions which later are poorly recalled in part,
because they never were stored in higher consciousness. Some form of
personality disorder would be expected in the perpetrator, typically Dependent
or Borderline P.D. (see Dutton & Kerry 1999).
The purpose of this review was to establish that evidence has
accumulated for a neurobiological link between abandonment and homicidal rage.
The evidence is mainly of the sort where similar neural structures (e.g. the orbitof
Neurobiology of Abandonment Homicide
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